The 1812 Garden Blog

Striped Cucumber Beetle

Wed, 12 Aug 2009 17:53:00 -0400

My time spent working at the 1812 Garden this summer has gone by with surprisingly, and satisfyingly, few speed bumps. Unlike last summer, when a week spent on vacation at the beginning of the summer meant that the entire garden would be infested with velvet leaf, the weeds never got too out of hand. And the weather, while surely frustrating for vacationers all over the Northeast, was splendid for the garden, with the copious amounts of rain insuring that all the crops received their necessary sustenance.

The biggest blip that I came across this summer was the 1 or 2 week period at the end of June when the striped cucumber beetles descended on Clinton, NY, and laid siege on the leaves of the many different plants that were grown. These little buggers are small, bothersome, and efficient at what they do. At first I didn’t really notice anything, and then one day I came to the garden only to find that the leaves on one of the squash plants looked like it may have just gone through an incinerator.

The striped cucumber beetles, which thankfully left town after a week or two, took mostly just to the squash plants. But they left such an indelible mark that one of our squashes was so completely eaten through that the entire plant was killed.

These beetles, about 1/5 of an inch long, usually only munch on the roots of plants. But when there is a high density of plant life, the beetles will branch out and feed off of the stems and leaves of said plants, as well, which is exactly what happened in our case. The only preventive measure that can be taken is to spray your pants with a solvent derived from a soap product, which repels the beetles. We received this advice too late to save one of our squash plants, but we probably saved some of our other crops by applying this solvent to our plants.

After they left, there was little else to worry about except for the thought of impending doom at the hands of the blight fungus, which thankfully has not materialized. But the striped cucumber beetles certainly left their mark. I’m reminded of it every day I walk past the slowly decomposing dead leaves left behind by those tiny, hungry beetles.

The Blight Fungus

Mon, 10 Aug 2009 17:43:00 -0400

In the mid 1800’s, Ireland went through a brutal potato famine that wiped out as much as a quarter of their population. Irish farmers, so reliant on its potato harvest every year, could do nothing once ‘late blight’ had wiped out the potato crops.

Fast forward about 150 years, and in the Northeast we are this summer experiencing our own strand of blight. According to Professor William Fry of Cornell University, the current outbreak of tomato blight has spread because of infected tomatoes sold by Wal-Mart for home-gardeners. Wal-Mart has since recalled all tomato seedlings that were produced by the company that produced the infected tomatoes. Once infected with blight, a tomato crop can be wiped out within days.

Farmers in the Northeast have become extremely concerned about the possibility of the blight wiping out their harvest. The blight, which is a fungus that can develop in the soil and usually infects either tomatoes or potatoes, is extremely contagious and capable of jumping from one plant to an entire field if the infectious spores seep out from even one opening.

The blight fungus works at an alarmingly fast pace as well. A couple that came down to the garden the other day told me an ominous tale about what happened to their tomatoes this summer. They had been growing at a prolific pace, in large part thanks to the increased amount of rainfall we’ve seen this summer. But one day, they noticed a powdery white substance accumulating on their tomatoes. Within a couple of days, their entire supply of tomatoes had been wiped out. There was nothing they could do about it. The only prudent thing would have simply been to destroy all of their tomatoes, but the blight saw to that, anyways.

The only preventive measure that can be taken against the blight fungus is a certain fungicide, which makes it especially dangerous for organic farmers.

So far in the 1812 Garden, I haven’t seen any signs of blight. Our tomatoes have been growing at a prodigious rate and I would be extremely disappointed if anything was to happen to them. But putting things in perspective, it’s hard to get too worked up about our tomatoes. If we lose them, then we lose them. But for the many farmers who are relying on their tomato harvest as a big source of income, this blight has had far more serious ramifications. And certainly no one needs further reminder of what the blight meant for Irish potato farmers in the mid 1850’s. The blight fungus is one of the most destructive poisons out there for a farmer.

Moskin, Julia. "Late Blight Fungus Threatens Tomato Crop in Northeast and Mid-Atlantic." The New York times 17 Jul 2009 Web.3 Aug 2009. <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/18/nyregion/18tomatoes.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=tomato%20blight&st=cse>.

Let me introduce myself

Tue, 07 Jul 2009 13:07:00 -0400

Welcome!

I’m Ryan Karerat, a rising sophomore and the 1812 Garden’s intern for the summer. Since I’m planning to major in World Politics, it wouldn’t seem that the 1812 Garden would be a natural place for me to work for a summer. I’m originally from Maryland, but with one parent in Saudi Arabia now and the other in India, going home wasn’t really an option for the summer so I sort of stumbled into this job. I did spend one fall during high school helping tend an organic garden, but this summer has still been a lot of on-the-job training for me. David Gapp and Frank Sciacca, the brainchildren of this project and supervisors of the Food for Thought seminar that oversees the garden during the academic year, have certainly showed some patience with me, but at this point I think I can say with some confidence that I actually have the hang of it. One month ago I would not have even been able to tell you what a velvet leaf is, and now I spend my mornings and afternoons going to war with the weeds in an effort to maintain the garden!

The 1812 Garden, in its second year of existence, has flourished this summer with most of the vegetables we planted successfully springing out of the ground [aside from the peas I mistakenly snapped out of the ground, of course!]. The plentiful supply of rain hasn’t’ hurt either. I’m looking forward to continuing to posting update blog entries here for the rest of the summer.

Ryan Karerat
1812 Garden Intern
Hamilton College

The Scythe as a Practical Farming Tool

Wed, 10 Dec 2008 16:02:00 -0400

Christina Matulaitis ‘09
Food for Thought Seminar, Fall 2008

What is a scythe?
A scythe is a traditional agricultural hand tool used for mowing and harvesting crops. It is no longer in widespread use today, having been replaced first by horse power and then by mechanized machinery, but is increasingly gaining popularity among some old-fashioned farmers. The use of a scythe has been described by many as an enjoyable task and is even featured as the topic of 19th and early 20th century poetry. In “The Scythe Song,” Andrew Lang, a Scottish poet, writes:

MOWERS, weary and brown, and blithe,
What is the word methinks ye know --
Endless over-word that the scythe
Sings to the blades of the grass below?
Scythes that swing in the grass and clover,
Something, still, they say as they pass;
What is that word that, over and over,
Sings the scythe to the flowers and grass?
Hush, ah hush, the scythes are saying,
Hush, and heed not, and fall asleep;
Hush, they say to the grasses swaying;
Hush, they sing to the clover deep!
Hush-- 'tis the lullaby Time is singing --
Hush, and heed not, for all things pass;
Hush, ah hush! and the scythes are swinging
Over the clover, over the grass!
Parts and Types

There are two main parts of the scythe: the blade and the handle, which is called the snath. The blade is constructed out of iron and steel. A high quality blade is light in weight with a very sharp blade that can cut tissue paper without tearing it. However, at the same time, the blade must be tough enough to resist breakage if a rock is hit in the field during mowing. In order to maintain a razor-sharp edge, the blade requires whetting at intervals during the mowing, usually every 15 minutes. When the scythe was a predominant agricultural tool, blades were made in many different lengths to suit various tasks. Today, blades usually measure about 27 inches.
The second part of the tool is the snath that connects to the blade. Snaths are made out of wood and come in a range of shapes, from perfectly straight to curved in order to fit to one’s body. There are usually about five feet long. Grips are the two knobs jutting out from the snath so that the mower can grasp the tool. One grip is located towards the middle of the snath, and should be lined up with the mower’s hip when the blade is on the ground. The second grip is located at the end of the snath. These locations allow the mower comfort and ease when using the tool.
The scythe is commonly pictured with its counterpart, the sickle. The sickle is also a traditional agricultural tool that serves nearly the same purpose a as scythe. The scythe largely replaced the sickle because of its efficiency and comfort, but a sickle can come in handy when a scythe is not suitable. The main differentiating property between a sickle and a scythe is the length of the handle. A sickle has a short handle and requires the use of only one hand and the mower bent over, whereas the scythe has a much longer and blade and the mower can remain upright.

Uses
Beginning in the Roman Empire, farmers have relied on this tool to harvest their fields. Continuing though history, the scythe has had four main uses: mowing hay, cutting weeds, maintaining lawns, and harvesting small grains. The first and most common use of the scythe is for mowing hay. Before gasoline-powered tools, farmers relied on the scythe to cut the hay that would be used to feed the farm animals and mulch gardens. One acre was considered an average day’s work of mowing for one man, but many farmers could cover more ground. Even today, some farmers find a scythe much more effective than modern machinery, especially in mowing the edges and corners of fields, where large tractors are unable to maneuver.
   Another common use for the tool is the cutting of weeds. It is more efficient than completing the task by hand, but the farmer must be more careful and precise in his slice than when mowing a field of hay. Similarly, scythes are a useful tool in maintaining lawns. Before the invention of the hand-pushed rotary lawn mower in 1831, lawns were trimmed by nibbling animals or long-bladed scythes. Lawns are easiest to mow in the morning, when the grass is heavy with dew and the scythe blade can cut right through it.
   The final main use of the scythe is for harvesting small grains, including wheat, barley and rye. The only grain crop than cannot be successfully harvested with a scythe is corn. A cradle-scythe was developed for the specific purpose of harvesting grains. It has a rake-like attachment in order to catch and collect the crop once the scythe cuts it down. This version lays out the grain more neatly than a regular type. The scythe has a variety of different uses on a farm and can perform some tasks better than modern equipment.
   Mowing Techniques & Methods
If done correctly, the use of a scythe should be comfortable and not at all exhausting. The mower should begin standing upright with knees slightly bent and an overall relaxed body. This stance allows the worker to continue mowing for long periods of time. The mower then twists his body to the right, almost looking over his shoulder. He proceeds to swing the scythe across his body in one continuous movement and finish with the tool to the left of him. The grass is thrown to the left of the area that has just been mowed. The twisting movement of the entire body is essential in order to the mower to gain momentum for the swing. The blade of the scythe is to remain parallel and very low to the ground throughout the entire process. The scythe cuts a swath, or a patch, or field in a crescent shape which can be as wide as ten feet. Rudyard Kipling compared the mowing movement to sailing: “The foresail scythed back and forth against the blue sky.” In this image, the mower is the mast and the boom is the scythe.
   For large fields, a team of mowers was generally employed. They would begin at the edge of the field, arranged in even intervals horizontally. The quickest mower would take the most leftward position and begin mowing first. The mower to his right would follow a few strokes after him, and continue on down the line. The workers would mow straightforward and proceed to turn clockwise, making a spiral pattern of swaths in the field. It was common to sing songs during team mowing, which helped maintain the rhythmic motion of the work.

Today
The scythe has largely been superseded by machinery in modern times. However it is still a common farming method in rural parts of Europe and Asia. Peter Vido, author of “The Scythe Must Dance: An Addendum on the Practical Use of the Scythe,” researched the uses of scythes in America and discovered them also being used in rural areas. He himself uses a scythe to maintain his garden, thoroughly enjoys using the fool and recommends other to try it. Growing up in Slovakia, he saw the scythe used frequently, which meant that it must be an energy efficient method of harvesting. He finds mowing with a scythe empowering and very useful in field of wheat that a mechanical mower would have trouble mowing.
Upon trying to use the scythe myself, I discovered that it does indeed feel like the extension of my body. With the tool in my hand, I felt like I had time-traveled to the past, to a more simple way of life. The breeze blew through the trees and the scythe whispered through the meadow. I can understand why farmers find the fool peaceful and relaxing, especially compared to raucous tractors.
The snath was long enough for me to stand upright in the field. The twisting motion was difficult to get used to and at first the scythe felt heavy and awkward. As I continued to mow, it became progressively easier, but I still need a lot of practice to be able to mow an acre in a day!

Bibliography

Lang, Andrew. The Scythe Song.
http://www.theotherpages.org/poems/lang01.html

Tresemer, David. The Scythe Book: Mowing Hay, Cutting Weeds, and Harvesting Small
Grains, with Hand Tools. Chambersburg, PA: Alan C. Hood & Company Inc.,
1996.

photos: www.scythesupply.com/thescythe_intro.htm
www.wikipedia.com

Celebrations and Food in the Early 1800?s

Tue, 09 Dec 2008 17:19:00 -0400

Traditionally, immigrants and colonists in America stuck with their ancestral cuisine and cooking, and “remained rooted in the British culinary traditions…dominated by meats and breads, with very little use of fruits and green vegetables.” (“American Taste and Tradition”). But by the early 1800’s Americans began to recognize and use local foods and to develop their own food and eating culture. In the early 19th century, before the introduction of the stove in 1830 along with mechanized cooking techniques, families used open fireplaces to cook their meals with iron utensils. Women did most of the cooking in the home, but when it came to cooking meat over an open flame or hot coals, as in a modern barbecue, men often took over. This was hard dirty work that included splitting wood and tending hot coals for hours.
In the early nineteenth century, the way in which a meal was prepared and served, as well as the etiquette of guests, indicated what part of society a person belonged to. Etiquette manuals were popular during this time and were intended for all parts of society and often symbolized the “democratization of gentility” and mobility in America(“An American Feast. Food, Dining, and Entertainment in the United States”). Often meals were less about the actual eating than about social order. Everything surrounding a meal, especially elaborate dinner parties, revolved around the manners and actions of the diners. Everything from “the invitation and response…the responsibilities of the hosts and guests, seating and arrangements… and finally the follow-up,” were important parts of the meal (“An American Feast. Food, Dining, and Entertainment in the United States”). These traditional mannerisms, extensive meals, and great cooking were often only experienced in wealthy households.

The actual meal typical of a wealthy household, especially on special occasions like a Thanksgiving meal and Christmas, were extensive and carefully executed. The place settings and appearance of a dining table was important. Menus were made for the most formal or extensive meals and included all of the dishes, the participants, and those who were to give toasts throughout the meal. These were included to “give formality, dignity, and order to the occasion” (“An American Feast. Food, Dining, and Entertainment in the United States”). There was strict timing for the meals, usually about two hours was appropriate, and each dish was served as its own meal. The feast usually started with “oysters and champagne. Then a choice of a white or brown soup and poured sherry was offered. Then fish with Chablis. Next an entree, such as asparagus or sweet corn. Then a slice of roast (with claret and champagne). After that, perhaps a punch to freshen the palate for the courses to follow: some kind of game; salad; cheese pastry or pudding; ices and sweet dishes. Then liqueurs. Then fruit with sherry or claret. Then a selection of nuts, raisins, and sugar plums. Finally, the meal ended with wine, liqueurs, cognac, and cigars” (“An American Feast. Food, Dining, and Entertainment in the United States”). Although “alcoholic beverages at the dinner table were not popular,” the temperance movement was not strong until the 1830s and 1840s. Therefore wine, champagne, and liquor was served and paired with these extensive meals. In less wealthy households feast were cooked to be as large as possible from the ingredients that could be grown and bought locally.
By the beginning of the 1800’s, local produce including cranberries, turnips, beets, and onions were popular along with the poultry, meat, and fish that the vegetables accompanied. Although many holidays were celebrated elaborately, there was no holiday in New England which gave people a more general source of satisfaction and joy, than...Thanksgiving...turkeys...bacon...chickens fricassied...oyster patties...soup...vegetables...pigeons...quails...bass...wood cock...potatoes...onions...beets...cold-slaw...rice, pies...plumb puddings..." and the expectation of merriment and family that accompanied the meal (“American Historic Thanksgiving Dinner Menus”). The expectation that Thanksgiving should be a day when “at least three dinners should be eaten in one,” and that the festivities are always better at home when the family is together made Thanksgiving feasts a memorable occasion (“American Historic Thanksgiving Dinner Menus”).

Additional Information and Menu Excerpts

References
Not by Bread Alone—America’s Culinary Heritage, Cornell University Library
“American Taste and Tradition”
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/food/american_taste.htm

“An American Feast. Food, Dining, and Entertainment in the United States. Exhibition at the Hugh M. Morris Library, University of Delaware. http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/american.html (June 21-September 20, 1994).
Ms. Crowen's American Lady's Cookery Book, Mrs. T. J. Crowen [Dick & Fitzgerald:New York] 1847 (p. 404-5)
The Frugal Housewife: Or, Complete Woman Cook.http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/display.cfm?TitleNo=2&PageNum=18
“Historic American Thanksgiving Dinner Menus” http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodthanksgiving.html
The American Heritage Cookbook and Illustrated History of American Eating & Drinking, American Heritage Magazine [American Heritage Publishing Co.:New York] 1964 (p. 420)
“Americans at the Table—Reflections on Food an Culture” An Electronic Journal
of the U.S. Department of State (July 2004)

Lovegren, Sylvia “Long Journey Over Open Coals” An Electronic Journal
of the U.S. Department of State (July 2004)
“Historic American Christmas Dinner Menues” http://www.foodtimeline.org/christmasmenu.html

Hops in New York State

Mon, 08 Dec 2008 21:26:00 -0400

Marc Pitarresi ‘10

Food For Thought Seminar, Fall 2008

Hops in New York State-

As I had recently turned twenty-one upon choosing a topic for this blog, I thought that there could be no better entry into legality than to explore the history of hops in New York State. To aid me in my research, I traveled to The Farmers' Museum in Cooperstown, New York, to enlist the help of resident hops expert, Wayne Coursen. A solidly built man of about sixty, Wayne looked exactly what I imagined a hops expert ought to look, bald with a white beard and dirty overalls, and a demeanor that told me he was no stranger to hard work. Wayne would have looked right at home alongside the brewers from the Sam Adams commercials. After showing me the fields and hops mounds, Wayne set about telling me about the history of hops.
Historical records show that beer has been brewed for thousands of years, dating back to the days of ancient Mesopotamia. The so-called “beer” from this time period, however, would taste nothing like the beer we are accustomed to today. Ancient beer that was consumed in ancient Mesopotamia was a mixture of fermented barley and water, whose sweetness led it to become known as “sweet beer”. This “sweet beer” had to be consumed quickly as it would spoil within two days of being brewed. “Sweet beer,” now commonly referred to as “wort,” is far too sweet and is unpleasant to the modern palate to drink. Beer as we know it today did not exist until the discovery of hops.

Hops were first discovered in Germany in A.D. 736 Initially, hops were used as a preservative, due to the presence of a resin called lupalin. There are two broad categories of hops, noble hops and aroma hops. Aroma hops are more commonly used, and is added to the barley and water mixture known as wort. The hops plant consists of the bine and the blossom (or flower). A bine is a climbing plant that climbs by its shoots around a support (generally a pole or stake in the ground). The blossom is the portion of the plant that is used in the brewing process. It was soon discovered, however, that in addition to its use as a preservative, the hops flower had a powerful and pleasant aroma (referred to as “hoppiness” in Sam Adams beer commercials). Also, the Alpha acids in hops negated the overpowering sweetness of wort by making beer more bitter. Simply put, the more hops used in brewing, the more acidic it is, which leads to a more bitter taste and a stronger aroma. Interestingly, most of the taste difference in different types of beer can be attributed to the amount of hops used in brewing. For example, India Pale Ales, or I.P.A.’s, are not the result of a special concoction by a brewmaster, but rather a matter of necessity. As history has repeatedly shown, alcohol is the close companion of the military. The British colony of India was no exception. In order to survive the long sea voyage from Britain to India, a substantial amount of hops was needed to ensure that the beer reached the British soldiers without spoiling. Thus, I.P.A.’s are characterized by their slightly bitter, “hoppy” flavor. Hops made the journey across the Atlantic to the colonies in 1629. It was not until the Industrial Revolution made its way to America, however, that the first commercial hop farm was established in New York State in neighboring Madison County in 1808.

As knowledgeable as he was about the botanical specifics of hops, Wayne’s eyes began to light up when I asked him about hops with specific regard to New York State. Hops are perennials, which are closely related to hemp and marijuana. Nineteenth-century farmers as well as modern breweries replace their roots every 10-12 years, after which time they tend to lose their aromatic potency. It is said, however, that wild hops can continue to sprout upwards of a hundred years. Hops generally grow to between 18-20 feet, and sometimes as high as 30 feet. Interestingly, because of the Coriolis effect, hops only grow around their poles counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. 19th century farmers were particularly fond of hops, as they required very little care compared to other crops. Hops are generally planted in a small mound. Three poles are then insertd in the ground, in a sort of inverse-teepee shape, with the base being narrow and top being wide. By the mid-1800’s it became more economical to use wire rather than this three-pole method, as the average farmer owned between 5-10 acres, this would save a great deal of money spent on poles. Depending upon variety, hops were generally harvested in late August or early September, which gave farmers a window of 2-3 weeks in which to harvest them. Particularly clever farmers would intentionally grow several varieties of hops in order to stretch harvest time, and in turn, produce a greater yield. Because hops are relatively easy to harvest and because farmers had other, more difficult crops to harvest, farmers would often hire people from the city to harvest their hops. Thus, farmers would send word to cities throughout New York State such as Albany, Troy, Schenectady, Utica, Syracuse, and Rochester inviting people to come and harvest hops. And because people in cities at the time were generally rather downtrodden economically, people (men and women alike) would come in droves to breathe the fresh country air. Men would be put to work removing the poles, which entailed cutting the vine at the bottom, pulling out the pole, and laying the pole across a box, where the women would then pick off the blossoms. Wayne went to great trouble to impress upon me that harvesting hops was considered great fun, a break from the monotony of city life. Large parties were often thrown at night (the origin of the modern day "sock-hop"), where the workers from the city could blow off steam and meet new people. There were also quirks and traditions in the harvesting process itself. For example, if a vine grew in a loop, the men were allowed to kiss a woman through the loop, similar to mistletoe at Christmas. For a day’s work, men would generally earn 65 cents, whereas women could make as little as fifty cents and as much as $1, depending on how much and how quickly the hops were picked. Wayne chuckled as he told me of how female patrons of the Farmers' Museum were often upset upon hearing that women made less, and then perked up upon learning that they had the potentially to earn more than the men.

The hops were dried in what was known as the Hop House, a four-room, two-story building. The blossoms would be placed in one of the upstairs room, roughly a foot thick, upon a slattered floor on top of a cheese cloth. In the room underneath was a wood stove, with pipes running the length of the room to ensure even heat distribution. The ideal temperature for the blossoms to reach was about 140 degrees Fahrenheit. Because this step was so crucial to the finished product, this was done by the farmer himself. The next day, the blossoms would be moved to the other upstairs room where they would be allowed to cool to room temperature. The hops would then be pushed through a hole in the floor into a hop press in the other room on the first floor. The hops would need to be pressed for the sake of ease in transport. The 19th century saw the use of two different types of hop press, the lever press and the screw presses. The screw press was prevalent in the earlier half of the 19th century, in which a large screw was turned around a large beam in the room to push the press down on the hops. The lever press, as the name suggests, used a large lever to push the press down. Both presses were cased with burlap to hold the blossoms, which were pressed into bales, much like hay, with the average bale weighing 180lbs.

Hops were a tremendously profitable industry in New York State in the 19th century, with hops selling for as much as $1.10/lb. By 1860, 90% of all American hops came from Otsego, Madison, and Schoharie counties in upstate New York. Cooperstown, New York was known as “The King of Hops.” Today, the hops produced in New York State has largely been reduced to use in local microbreweries. Many attribute this to the contagion of the Blue Mold Blight in 1913. While this is true, Wayne told me, it is not entirely so. Wayne cited three main contributing factors to the failure of the New York State hops industry. The average acre of land in New York State can yield between 500lbs. and 600lbs. of hops. With westward expansion, lands were discovered in northern California, Oregon, and Washington that could yield 1,500-1,600lbs/acre. This drove the price of hops down and decreased farmers profit margins. The second step in the decline of the New York State hops industry was the middle man. With so many other crops to worry about, farmers started hiring people to go to the breweries and sell their hops for them. These middle men began demanding higher and higher shares of the profits, which further diminished the farmers profit margins. The Blue Mold Blight was a type of mold that, if not eliminated, would kill the hops. The cost of the fungicide, however, was the final blow to the farmer’s profit margins, the New York State hops industry collapsed, never to recover beyond the microbreweries that exist today.

Picture 1- The hops mound at the Farmers' Museum in Cooperstown, NY

Picture 2- Last summer's hops in the 1812 Garden

References: Staples, Kate. "Heirlooms of the Finger Lakes: The History of Hops in New York"

A Personal Interview with Wayne Coursen, Hops Expert at The Farmer's Museum. Cooperstown, NY.

Making the Hot-bed or Hot frame

Mon, 08 Dec 2008 16:57:00 -0400

    The hot bed, also known as hot frame, is a method that was very useful for farmers in the United States to solve the problem of the short period of spring. Spring was either very short or not in existent in some northern regions, followed by the hot and humid condition of summer. The problem of the sudden transition is that farmers would not have enough time to plant vegetables before the hot weather of summer arrives. If there is a sudden transition from cold to hot weather, then the soil becomes dampen, and lots of insects may hurt the plants. Therefore the hot bed, or the hot frame was necessary at the end of winter for the prospering of the plants in summer. Hot bed or frame is also used to first grow in winter and transplant it somewhere else warmer, “Some of our seeds must be planted in hot frames with protection against the worst of the winter weather, to be transplanted later (flax, love-in-a-mist, marigold, phlox, snapdragons). Others may be planted directly in the soil and left to fend for themselves (sweet peas, lupins, nasturtiums, poppies).” The hot bed or frame is a useful tip that gardeners use to grow plants during or shortly before or after the winter.

    Making a hot bed is inexpensive and required manure. First you need to have a sufficient amount of dung. Farmers who do not raise cattle, horse or pigs would have to get dung from other farmers. Fresh dung is used to radiate heat for the hot frame. However the best type of dung to build a hot bed is horse dung. Construction of a hot bed: First dig a rectangular shaped pit deep enough to lay the manure in and cover it with soil. The dung should be raked to loosen it up. The heap should be turned again in three to four days by then steam should radiating from it. Turn the heap again after four more days. Once the manure is well prepared add a think layer of soil on top of it. Be aware, plants can die because of too much heat.

The second very important material in constructing the hot frame is the frame itself. According to the American Gardener “the Frame is of the best shape when it is eighteen inches deep at the back, and nine inches deep at the front. This gives slope enough, and especially in a country where there is so little rainy weather.” (Cobbett 40)
The frame top is better if it is glass, “The front of the bed is, of course, to be full south, so that the noon sun may come right upon the glass” (Cobbett 40). Before setting the frame, lay bales of straw around it to protect the hot frame from wind and cold temperature. Once the bales cover the four sides of the pit, lay the glass frame on top of it. This frame will not only let the sun heat come right in to the frame to keep it warm, but also helps keep the heat inside of hot frame.

Hot bed or frame is really warm. It can keep the temperature as high as 70 Fahrenheit or keep at around 50 Fahrenheit for weeks. Hot bed or hot frame can extend the growing season. You can also start planting before winter is over, or even during the winter if you have sufficient amount of dung to replace the old every month.

Bibliography

William , Cobbett. The American Gardener: A Treatise On The Situation, Soil And Laying Out Of Gardens. (Philadelphia: J.L. Gihon, 1854.)

"Building A Hot Frame." Fresh from the garden, 16 Nov 2008 <http://www.diynetwork.com/diy/gr_fruits_vegetables/article/0,2029,DIY_13846_3105695,00.html>.

Klimist, Inez . "This season's work: Enrich the soil, now." The Jerusalem Post, (December 8 2008): 7B

All in Favor of Manure!

Tue, 02 Dec 2008 19:52:00 -0400

Cristina Soriano '11

Food For Thought Seminar Fall 2008

In current society, manure unfortunately has negative connotations. This modern disgust, however, was actually quite the opposite in ancient times. Dried dung cakes were (and in some areas still are) the main providers of fuel throughout history; nomads journeying the Oregon Trail, for example, collected buffalo feces as a firewood alternative. Today, manure is seen as an essentially useless waste product—but in fact, possesses very valuable qualities—it is an incredibly beneficial substance for plant life and growth.

Manure that comes from macrobiotic grain-fed cows is an organic fertilizer because it contains no artificial or synthetic chemicals. Manure compost is an infusion of the waste excretions of large animals, such as cows, sheep, and pigs, as well as decomposing hay and other plant matter. Spreading manure over cropland to enrich the soil has been an old farming custom used for centuries, and is actually superior to the modern invention of chemical fertilizers.

Organic residue is beneficial to crop growth because it is a “storehouse for anions essential for plant growth” (Follet, Murphy and Donahue). Anions, such as “nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, borates, molypdates and chlorates” (Follet, Murphy and Donahue), are negatively charged ions that are formed when an atom gains electrons in a chemical reaction. Plants rely heavily on the uptake of anions because they are key in helping plant cells adapt to environmental stresses. They act like the plant’s immune system, assisting their acclimation to severe and rapid weather changes. The applied organic fertilizer enriches the soil with vitamins and minerals, improving the vigor of the previously depleted soil. The foe, synthetic fertilizer, also provides soil fortification but in an artificial manner. Synthetic fertilizers need to be mixed with chemical substitutes of anions. It therefore seems quite disadvantageous and futile to use the synthetic alternate if Mother Nature complimentarily provides the natural.

A second reason that manure fertilization is successful in establishing a sustainable agricultural practice is because it protects the surface soil from rain and irrigation water erosion. The layer of fertilizer provides a buffer for the soil against capricious climates such as early frosts, excruciating heat, and turbulent acidity and salinity levels.

Thirdly, organic fertilizers are effective because it retains superfluous nutrients. The fertilizer fosters an ecologically balanced environment for mud-living animals. One such vital creature is the earthworm. As compared to synthetic fertilizers, manure-based compost permits the survival of earthworms because there are no chemically added anions. Earthworms are vital in creating a nutritional and prosperous ecosystem, they are an important ingredient in producing fertile soil just by their monotonous movements through their extending and compressing actions. They convert large pieces of organic matter into humus, or enriched soil. This process also mixes up the soil, leaving open channels for drainage and aeration. Worms consume some of the soil, and through digestion, grid it into a fine paste and then excrete it back into the earth. What is wonderful about earthworms is that the casts (worm feces) are deposited in the deeper levels of the soil, surrounding the longer roots of larger plants, providing them with vitamins.

In an era with a great drive to eat green, chemical free produce, it is evident that manure-based organic fertilizers should be implemented throughout the entire agricultural industry, and, locally in Hamilton’s 1812 Garden. So, what tactics should be employed in order to enrich the soil of the College’s garden? One method frequently used is the Fourteen Day Method. On Day One, the farmer must collect an array of basic materials and mix, in a large container, “equal parts of leaves, grass, clippings and manure (sheep, goat and cattle are best), with a liberal sprinkling of natural rock powders” (Rodale). On the second and third days, the compost material should have begun to heat up and the farmer (or, in this case, student!) should insert a thermometer into the mixture in order to keep note of the rising temperature. On the fourth, seventh, and tenth days, the heap should be turned or mixed, and moistened and the temperature recorded. On the fourteenth day, the compost is ready to be applied! The process is fairly simple, yet the outcome is incredibly beneficial for plant harvests. This method, however, requires that the mulch be applied to the field before the first frost; and because central New York is blessed with early snowfalls, this technique cannot be implemented this season. Another suggestion is to purchase some already-made compost from the nearby Drover Hill Farm, less than twenty-five minutes away from Hamilton’s campus. Stephanie Lipsey, the innkeeper of the farm (and its accompanying bed and breakfast), informed me that the cow manure from her cattle ranch, “works marvels on any plant”.

She collects the manure and hay from the cattle barns and creates a dumpsite where she discards the compost for about a year before applying it on the fields. Stephanie kindly offered the College as much manure compost as desired and she can be contacted at: The Drover Hill Farm, 1014 Earlville Road, Earlville, NY 13332. Phone: 315.691.2327. Website: www.droverhillfarm.com. She advised that the fertilizer could be applied come springtime when seeds are being planted and then again during the hot summer months in order to hydrate the sprouted crops. The second suggestion is a much more feasible method not only because the mulch at the Farm has been made, but because this specific fertilizer should be applied in the spring, rather than before the first frost.

Manure fertilizer is most definitely the most desirable and “nutritious” of all types of fertilizers—its exceptional qualities have preceded the test of time. Manure is the way to go!

Bibliography

Follet, Roy H., Larry S. Murphy and Roy L. Donahue. Fertilizers and Soil Amendments. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1981.

Glanz, James. Saving our Soil. Boulder: Johnson Books, 1995.

Rodale, Robert. The Basic Book of Organic Gardening. New York: Rodale Press Inc. , 1971.

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Grains and Grinding

Thu, 20 Nov 2008 20:10:00 -0400

Emma Stewart '08

Food For Thought Seminar, Fall 2008

Grains are perhaps the most important source of calories for many cultures around the world. Botanically, grains are technically the fruits of grasses; culturally they are the basis for many diverse diets. They can be prepared in many different ways, but grinding grains into meal or flour is method of diversifying the means by which they can be cooked and consumed. Processing grains requires drying of the fruit, removing the inedible, cellulosic husks or cobs, and finally grinding them to create the powder we know as flour. Before mechanical milling operations were built, pioneer families had to grind by hand the corn, wheat, and rye they had grown. In American history, this was often done using mortars made from logs with a cavity burned out (Haseley). This was hard, time-consuming work, and mills run by water power employing large stone grinding wheels soon became the method by which whole grains were ground into flour.

This is dried Iroquois heiloom white corn. All of it was grown in the heritage garden.

In Mexico and parts of Central and South American, where corn is the principle grain consumed, grinding dried corn was done using a metate y mano, or “grinder and hand.” People have been using metate stones as long as maize has been domesticated, since about 7000 BCE. Traditionally women ground the dried maize kernels for making tortillas, an energy intensive practice done daily. The metate was so critical to Aztec foodways and culture that baby girls’ umbilical cords were buried underneath the metate when they were cut.

The device is two heavy stones: one large flat slab with short legs and a depression in the middle, and another smaller hand-held stone that fits into the depression. To grind corn, one puts corn into the depression and runs the stone back and forth (with a lot of pressure!) over the corn kernels until they are broken into corn meal. The more pressure one applies, the more efficient the grinding is, so the women who use metates kneel or squat over the device so as to get good leverage.

Growing, harvesting, drying and grinding your own grains is indeed a lot of work. I learned this first hand this fall. I harvested about 40 ears of Iroquois heirloom white corn in late September from the 1812 Garden. We lost some kernels to insects, some to fungus, some to unpollinated stamens, and some to poorly developed grains, but the harvest was quite bountiful overall. The corn was harvested later than one would harvest sweet corn for eating on the cob; the kernels were big, white, starchy, and relatively dry. We left all the corn to dry on the cobs in a dry attic except one ear; this one was left in my car for several weeks, where it probably cooked at low temperatures. Those dried in the attic had more of a corn taste compared to the ear left in the car which actually tasted a little milky.

Once they were completely dry, I knocked the kernels off the cobs by hand; it took about an hour and half to do 40 ears, but the grains alone looked impressive.

This is me grinding the corn by hand at the co-op

I let the kernels dry off the cob for a few more days in a warm area, and then it was time to grind. I used a hand-crank grinder in the Woollcott Co-op that has gears that adjust to give either finer or grainer flour. The finer the flour, the more difficult the crank was to turn, so I opted for an intermediate grain size. The grinding took about 2 hours total. At first it was fun and as the novelty wore off I was able to recruit volunteers who wanted to try it for themselves as well.

We have a metate, but the mano is too wide to fit into the depression and the grains slip through without being ground. I tried it out anyway, just to get a feel for what it would be like. It certainly felt like a lot of work, kneeling and grasping the heavy stone in my hand.

This picture is me modeling how to use the metate y mano

The finished product of my grinding is about 7 or 8 pounds of corn meal, ready to be made into Iroquois cornbread, or in the Mexican tradition, tortillas. It was hours upon hours of work for this small amount of corn meal – and I didn’t even have to plant or care for the corn this summer. It is humbling to realize just how much work goes into growing and processing grains. No wonder the Aztecs had such reverence for maize and the metate; such a huge part of their lives were dependent on them!

References

Haseley, Janey Long. “History of the Renssalaerville Grist Mill.” 1996. Upper Hudson Library System. 11 Nov. 2008. <http://www.uhls.org/NICHE/RvGristHist.htm>.

“Metate.” 2008. Mexicolore. 11 Nov 2008. <http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/index.php?one=azt&two=art&tab=two&id=104>.

Smith, S. E. “What is a Metate?” 2008. Wisegeek. 29 Sept. 2008. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-metate.htm>.

Yaguda, Rebecca. Personal interview. 11 Nov. 2008.

Poison Ivy Eradication

Thu, 20 Nov 2008 00:34:00 -0400

You come back home after having spent a long, fruitful day in the garden. Your arms and your hands are blackened with soil, and fine particulates of grit remain embedded under your nails. But all is well – you look at your garden basket and smile because the earth has rewarded your hard labors with plump and colorful vegetables. Days later, however, you scratch a red spot on the back of your hand. And then you scratch again. And again. And now you’re scratching your wrist. You look down and see a red angry rash beginning to trail its way up your arm.

That’s when you realize what that unfamiliar plant was in your garden.

Rhus radicans, better known as “poison ivy”, is an unfortunately common pest that plagues many a backyard and vegetable patch, especially in the Northeast United States. The big problem regarding this plant is the oil in its leaves, urushiol. When this compound comes into contact with membrane proteins in exposed skin cells, it binds with them and changes their structure. The body, mistaking these newly-formed proteins for foreign pathogens, incites an autoimmune response. The allergic reaction that results is usually a rash in the contact area, characterized by redness, swelling, streaks, and blisters.

However, once one learns how to identify poison ivy, it’s not difficult to avoid. Poison ivy has a leaf structure that consists of three leaflets. Each leaflet (the middle being slightly larger than the others) is about two to four inches long. They are a dull or glossy green, with pointed tips. The edges of the leaves vary from plant to plant, and can appear either toothed or smooth. Poison ivy can be found in one of three forms: an upright shrub, a trailing shrub running along the ground, or a woody vine, the last usually
growing on trees or other objects for support. Also, most mature poison ivy plants will flower and produce clusters of white or yellow fruit, which appears much like wax.

There are numerous ways to go about eradicating poison ivy from one’s garden. Most of them consist of using some type of herbicide. However, this article will avoid proposing these methods in favor of more organic, healthy approaches. The first and most obvious is manual labor – good old hand pulling. The best time to start pulling is early in the spring (when the leaves unfold) and when the soil is moist. Whenever handling poison ivy, it’s crucial to wear gloves. For added protection, wear a long sleeved shirt and long pants. Be sure to pull up the entirety of the root, or else the runners that remain in the ground will re-grow. Do try to avoid touching the outside of the gloves – there are probably traces of urushiol on the glove surface, since the oil clings to almost everything. Do not mow the poison ivy, since fragments of the plant will just be scattered everywhere. And whatever you do, DO NOT BURN poison ivy. The smoke still contains urushiol and, if inhaled, can cause severe lung damage.

Of course, there are alternative methods of eradication. One is a household mixture that contains three pounds of salt and one gallon of soapy water (or: one cup of salt, eight drops of liquid detergent, and one gallon of vinegar). Spray this mixture on the plants and they should wilt and die within about two weeks or so. The downside to this method, however, is that the salt may be damaging to the environment – it will leach water from nearby plants and remain in the soil until washed away by enough rainfall. Another method (albeit a time-consuming one) consists of wrapping a poison ivy vine in black plastic bags for a few months. Eventually, the plant will suffocate.

And voila! A poison ivy-free garden.

Bibliography:

Shaughnessy, Debbie. "Poison Ivy." Home and Garden Information Center. Dec. 2006. Clemson Extension. 14 Nov. 2008